DOES THE
IMAGE OF INDONESIAN CONTEMPORARY
ARTISTS MATTER? A THEORETICAL REVIEW ON PERSONAL DIVERSITY, BRAND
IMAGE, MARKET ACCEPTANCE & MARKET OPPORTUNITY
Samuel PD Anantadjaya
School of Business
Faculty of Business Administration & Humanities
Swiss German University, Tangerang, Indonesia
E-mail: ethan.eryn@gmail.com
Irma M Nawangwulan
School of Management Studies
Universitas Pembangunan Jaya, Tangerang, Indonesia
E-mail: inawangwulan@gmail.com
Aninditya Kusumah
School of Business
Faculty of Business Administration & Humanities
Swiss German University, Tangerang, Indonesia
E-mail: anindityakusumah@yahoo.com
Yusup Budi Setio
PT. Denso Sales Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: budisetio_yusup@yahoo.com
Cindy Kartika Koswara
School of Management Studies
Harapan Bangsa Business School, Bandung, Indonesia
E-mail: c1ndy_kartika@yahoo.com
Submission: 07/11/2014
Revision: 21/11/2014
Accept: 30/11/2014
ABSTRACT
The issue surrounding brand image is always fascinating to ponder. This is true not only for products/services, but also for organizations and individuals. Like it or not, individuals are prone toward creating brand image to excel in life. From the understanding on products/services, personal marketing
for artists are deemed
necessary. Following the study on personal brand image, it is fascinating to evaluate
the likelihood of impact toward
public/market acceptance, and whether the level of public/market acceptance influences the level of market opportunity for those artists. Hence,
it is expected
that the relationships are adequately robust.
Keywords:
brand image, market
acceptance, market opportunity, artworks, artists.
1. INTRODUCTION
The country’s economic growth is closely
tied to the development of entrepreneurs, as the engine of economic
expansion, particularly in terms of enhancing
efficiency, innovation, competition, and job opportunity/employment.
The
success stories of micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs),
including large organizations, are usually
accounted for in terms of financial
measurements (ANANTADJAYA, 2009;
ELLEN; ANANTADJAYA; SAROSO, 2014; FATIMAH-SALWA; AZAHARI; TAMKIN, 2013; MATSUO et al., 2001), such as; ratios, margins, sales, or profit,
and non-financial statistics (ANANTADJAYA; 2007; ELLEN; ANANTADJAYA; SAROSO, 2014; FATIMAH-SALWA; AZAHARI; TAMKIN,
2013; MATSUO et al., 2001; SALEEM;
SHEIKH, 2011; UDDIN; BOSE, 2013),
such as; customer satisfaction, personal development and personal realization.
For initiatives on
organizational development toward
sustainability, undoubtedly, creativity
is the starting
point (BOP CONSULTING,
2010; LANDRY; BIANCHINI,
1995; CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, 1997). Since creativity may have started with
the thinking process, to grow, businesses must nurture the development of ideas
from employees and the management (JIN, 2012; HOWKINS, 2001; FLORIDA, 2002) to
consider the economic activities in exploiting knowledge (including skills,
talents, attitudes, and intellectual capital), information, and resources
(HASMONDHALGH, 2007; CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, 1997; DEPARTEMEN PERDAGANGAN REPUBLIK
INDONESIA, 2010; ANTARIKSA, 2012).
The creative industries have been
regarded as the essential sector in inducing the human creativity (SMIT, 2011),
as the ultimate intellectual capital, which supports the economic intangible
assets/resources (ANANTADJAYA; MAY 2009; FLORIDA, 2002). Today, dependencies on
knowledge-based and resource-based (ANANTADJAYA, 2008; RESCH, 2011) to
continuously boost creativity, has obviously emerged (BOP CONSULTING, 2010;
LANDRY; BIANCHINI, 1995).
Ranking 43rd in Economic Creativity Index ranking, which
was released by the World Economic Forum (ADI, 2013), and the 4th largest
population in the world (TARIGAN; KHAFID, 2012), the market opportunity for
business practices to grow is unsurprisingly huge (ABIMANYU, et al., 2011; HOWKINS,
2001).
Art has been a part of everyone’s
lives. Regardless as music or designs, whether noticed or not, art has touched
everyone, undoubtedly. Indonesian artistic world has developed from ages of
trade. The mixture of culture and different backgrounds of each zone within the
groups of islands lead to a very unique and divers characteristic of the
nation’s artistic creation. With that in hand, artists from all around the
globe saw Indonesia as their creative conservatory (BROWNELL, 2013).
Indonesians have been exposed in the
world of art since before century. Artworks in a cave located in Indonesia were
made 40,000 years ago taking it to be one of the oldest artwork ever created in
the history of humankind. Some scientists are even considering the theory of
Indonesia as the first place where the technique of cave painting and artistic
comprehension of humankind were developed for the first time (CYRANOSKI, 2014).
As mentioned by Dr. Mari Pangestu,
the former Indonesian Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy, Indonesian
creative industries are all included of restaurants, fashion, music, performing
arts, spas, and design in any industry, as well as arts and craft (INDONESIA
KREATIF, 2008; KELOMPOK KERJA INDONESIA DESIGN POWER, 2008; DEPARTEMEN
PERDAGANGAN REPUBLIK INDONESIA, 2010; HIDAYAT et al., 2013).
From the table, it is apparent that
arts are well-represented in multiple sectors of the Indonesiancategory of the
creative industry. In fact, the majority of those 14 creative industrial
sectors are all about arts, with the biggest contributors coming from fashion
(44%) and crafting (28%), which are also art-based products, at more than 70%.
Taking South Korea’s emerging
success in getting the Korean-own pop culture and digital entertainment into a
massive export commodity as a model, Dr. Mari Pangestu is optimist on setting
the goal of boosting creative industry’s contribution towards GDP by 11% within
the next 10 years (SOONG, 2012). The government started realizing the big
impact of the creative industry toward the country’s welfare. Creative
industries are expected not only to contribute towards the country’s GDP but
also increase people’s well-being and provide jobs (ABDUSSALAM, 2010).
With a total contribution to GDP in
2002-2006, as shown below, the contribution of the creative industry to the
Indonesian economy cannot be ignored (INDONESIA KREATIF, 2008). Focusing on
Indonesian MSMEs alone, a total of 54% of GDP and 97% of employment are
originated from MSMEs (SHINOZAKE, 2012). This is the reason that MSMEs are
often regarded as the back-bone of the country’s economy. Together, MSMEs and
creative industry cannot be overlooked (HIDAYAT et al., 2013).
Sub-Sectors of the Creative Industry in Indonesia |
Market Size (small to large in thousands of
Rupiah) |
% |
Contribution To GDP (small
to large in thousands of
Rupiah) |
% |
1. Performing Arts |
111,563,350 |
0.11% |
124,467,644 |
0.12% |
2. Film,
Video &
Photography |
261,367,015 |
0.25% |
250,431,983 |
0.24% |
3. Interactive Games |
297,265,982 |
0.28% |
337,392,321 |
0.32% |
4. Artworks & Antiques |
606,513,246 |
0.58% |
685,870,805 |
0.66% |
5. R &
D |
875,302,628 |
0.84% |
969,493,823 |
0.93% |
6. Computer & Software |
884,339,892 |
0.85% |
1,040,637,861 |
0.99% |
7. TV & Radio |
1,895,524,840 |
1.81% |
2,136,827,023 |
2.04% |
8. Music |
3,039,327,202 |
2.90% |
3,824,179,411 |
3.65% |
9. Architecture |
3,356,992,007 |
3.21% |
4,134,446,695 |
3.95% |
10. Printing & Publications |
3,578,627,759 |
3.42% |
4,283,989,792 |
4.09% |
11. Design |
7,137,087,060 |
6.82% |
6,159,598,596 |
5.89% |
12. Advertising |
7,353,465,000 |
7.03% |
8,305,034,367 |
7.94% |
13. Crafts |
29,009,440,318 |
27.72% |
26,731,069,150 |
25.55% |
14. Fashion |
46,231,171,963 |
44.18% |
45,803,769,843 |
43.77% |
Total |
104,637,988,262 |
100% |
104,787,209,314 |
100% |
Source: Hidayat, et al., (2013)
Art has played an important role
within the nation. The year 2009 was devoted as “Year of Creative Industries”
by Indonesia’s Ministry of Trade. The increasing achievement made within this
industry has been very significantly shown in the country’s GDP. The year 2009
was the peak of the success, which leads the government of Indonesia to giving
more devotion toward this particular industry (THE JAKARTA POST, 2012).
In addition, the former Indonesian President,
Dr. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who has just recently stepped down from his
10-year reign on October 27, 2014, and succeeded by the President Joko Widodo,
launched a Presidential Instruction No. 6/2009, which requires twenty four (24)
governmental organizations to build and organized programs aiming to develop
the creative sector. Following that steps, most state banks are then encouraged
to grant more loans for business owners who are moving in creative sectors (GLOBAL
BUSINESS GUIDE INDONESIA, 2012).
Though the continuation of the
initiatives toward the Indonesian creative industry becomes questionable now
following the announcement of the President Joko Widodo’s cabinet, the
Indonesian ministries and government bodies have to undergo massive re-
classifications, the creative industry has proven to have the ability to
contribute good deeds for Indonesia. The focus on the Indonesian creative
industry has certainly boosted the country’s international reputation.
Despite of being under the domestic
radar, contemporary artists of Indonesia have put their names in the same list
with multinational artists in multiple international art exhibitions. In
February 2013, Arin Dwihartanto Sunaryo and Reza Afisina both featured in “No
Country: Contemporary Art for South and Southeast Asia” held by New York City’s
The Guggenheim Museum (THE JAKARTA POST, 2012). Another Indonesian contemporary
artist was also featured in Harper’s Bazaar list of “Artist to Watch” in the
same year, Melati Suryodarmo, a contemporary artist, who was born in Surakarta,
Indonesia. She was listed third after Ryan Mitchell and Amanda Coogen, both are
known very well in international contemporary art world for their stunning art
pieces (ABRAMOVIC, 2013).
The market of art can determine the
value of the art pieces. Artistic pieces are not only graded based on their
techniques and the inspiration behind them, but also how much appreciation it
gets from the market itself. The more an artwork is valued the bigger
importance are given to the artist, both economically and also artistically
(SASAKI, 2012). The idea of putting an economic value into artworks does not
always go into a mutual agreement between artists. In a perspective, art is an
intellectual property. By means, the transaction of exchange a tangible art
piece does not detached the work from the artist themselves. Therefore, putting
the value of an artwork based on its’ monetary transaction seems improper
(SASAKI, 2012).
To increase the intricacies, the
diversity of the artists adds dynamics to the image, appreciation/acceptance,
and the potential market in the art industry. Undoubtedly, individuals and
organizations may have realized the existence of such diversity. This can be
easily seen fromform the usual forms to fill-out, which may likely ask for
demographic elements, such as; age, gender, education, race, ethnic group,
religion, blood type, and others. Nonetheless, the personal data may have been
used as a mere biographical data only without a closer consideration on
understanding diversity (SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014).
The successful diversity recognition
and management may likely impact the level of effectiveness in the
organizational activities (JONES; GEORGE, 2008). For example, a research in
American education institutions revealed that the more diverse the teachers,
the more likely the grades and performance improve (BOSER, 2011). Also,
researches among organizational employees have revealed differences in work
performance of Caucasians, African Americans, and Hispanics (ROTH; HUFFCUTT;
BOBKO, 2003).
All this is basically due to the
understanding that diversity stimuli individuals. In fact, researches based on
blood type have disclosed the closeness of connection to individuals’ personality. Hence, it is
probable that the diversity of artists influences the image and outcome of the
artworks.
Numerous studies conducted by Galenson
and Jensen (2002) for instance, have been done in order to understand the path
of artistic career and their affect toward the artistic life cycles (GALENSON;
JENSEN, 2002). In terms of art market, it is understood that there’s always
different approaches toward artistic pieces, which then may lead into
completely opposite styles and view. Experts believe there are two different
approaches in visual arts: techniques as well as and creative ideas and
innovation (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012). Seeing from the angle of the
approach, contemporary art falls under innovation and creative ideas.
1.1.
Cenceptual clarification
By a “quick definition”, a
contemporary art in this article refers to those artworks, which were are made
between 1960s or 1970s until the present day. Current issues such as politics,
sociology, a gender and humanities are usually what inspired contemporary arts.
Contemporary artists, viewed from their pieces, spoke more about what they feel
and focus on delivering their personal ideas and ideology (ESAAK, 2014).
Indonesian contemporary arts spoke a
lot about the political and social worries of the artist in its’ early days.
Under the regime, contemporary arts in Indonesia exploded with deep irony and
sarcasm provocatively toward the government. Artists were more than ever,
trying to deliver a fragment of their opinion in matters of religions,
economics, ethnic and cultural identity with their works, which lead to what
defines contemporary arts of Indonesia today (KENDZULAK, 2013; FLEW, 2010).
As time goes by, contemporary arts
were driven away from being the voice of the artists into commercialized ideas
(RESCH, 2011). Lack of supporting infrastructures, private either government
sponsorship also a very niche market pushed the artists to seek funding to
other sources. Most of them then engaged demanded in into creating ‘art
product’ that will appeal international collectors. The demand mostly requires
them to create organic paintings, in large size with mix of vibrant colors (ESAAK,
2014).
However, Indonesian art market is
always more appealing for the international market. The similarities that
Indonesian art has with authentic Chinese ones put extra plus point into
attractiveness of Indonesian art pieces. Most international collectors find
them beyond the reason of personal collection, but also as an investment.
Buying from the right artist may lead into a bigger selling price in the
future.
For that same reason, many of these
transactions are based on into monetary reasons, which then did not give a
helpful hand towards the improvement and development of Indonesian contemporary
arts (OHD MUSEUM, 2012).
Despite the lack of infrastructures,
the market for Indonesian arts remains attractive domestically. Through the economic
angle, Indonesia is predicted to be the seventh biggest economy in the world
surpassing UK by 2030. Alongside with the rapid economic growth, it will also
increase the number of members within consuming class within the nation (OBERMAN
et al., 2012).
By keeping that in mind, the
prospect of arts market within Indonesia has become mutually appealing. The
increasing number of people in the consuming class means that people are fond
to the idea of showing off their wealth and taste through collecting or
purchasing artwork. The increasing demand for these pieces will create a
nurturing environment for numerous arts auction sites and museums to emerge.
This might be the next step for the contemporary artists to express more,
create more and gain more (GENOCCHIO, 2013).
1.2.
Research problem,
question& purpose
In accordance with the above
overview, the research problem, research question, and research purpose can be
formulated as follows;
Research Problem |
Research Question |
Research Purpose |
It is interesting to note the likelyihood relationships between the artists’ diversity, brand image, level
of market acceptance toward artists, and the
market opportunity of artworks |
Are there any relationships between the artists’ diversity, brand image, level
of market acceptance toward artists, and the
market opportunity of artworks? |
This literature study attempts to investigate the theoretical significance of the artists’ diversity, brand
image, level
of acceptance, and the market
opportunity of artworks. The outcome of such theoretical investigations is to develop a proposed research model |
1.3.
Scope and limitation
To better increase the focus and
emphasis in this study, the following research scope and limitations include
the following:
a)
Analyzing the local market of Indonesian contemporary
and modern art world.
b)
The sample is limited to local Indonesian artists
working in arts both in terms of design and contemporary arts that are fully
devoted to artistic works as their main profession.
c)
The analysis of the global customer
perception is limited
to foreign citizens alongside with both devoted local and foreign
art collectors and art enthusiasts.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.
Art business
The business of art has now emerged
to staggering sales. By 2012, the world witnesseds sale in the art world as it hits
$500 million valued painting that were sold internationally. The world of art
is, for sure, a potentially rich international industry with its’ own market
difficulties and complexity. On the other side, some people find the act of
putting economic all value into art as despicable. Artistic work is often seen
as a gift and more into a psychological venture of seeing and being ‘touched’
by a sort of beauty (ROBERTSON; CHONG, 2008).
Most people who are normally
involved in the business of art are the artist themselves, collectors, dealers,
and museum curators. Despite the beneficial economic fact, the world of art
market is not as flawless. Most of the time, there are no regulations made
surrounding the art market, in order to protect both the buyer and artists from
any scams including authenticity and undervalued artistic works. Above that
fact raises another speculation of art as an investment, with increasing value
of the art pieces flows with time (ROBERTSON; CHONG, 2008).
The art market has the nature of
being unregulated. In his book The Art Business, Robertson quoted Sotheby
stating that it is impossible to measure the art market, as there is never a
clear report on how much an auction or a gallery may have gain in terms of
profit (ROBERTSON; CHONG, 2008).
Perhaps, this is due to the fact
that art is a very different kind of commodity. Works of arts are only
intriguing for the people who have interest in them. For these specific people,
the work of art may turn to have more value than gold since it is not only
satisfy their wants but also accomplished their psychological, almost spiritual
quality (ROBERTSON; CHONG, 2008).
The art economy is centered in the
presence of the galleries (RESCH, 2011). Aside from the existence of private
collectors and institutions, galleries work as a medium for artists to display
their products and get them into the eyes of potential buyers. Galleries
usually put a price on an artwork based on the level of difficulties and time
it took for the artist to make the piece. A number of art transactions may also
occur outside the galleries. At large, galleries are divided into three types (MOUREAU;
SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012):
a)
Point-of-sales gallery is a type of gallery that has the main role of conducting an
exhibition and openings that show case multiple artists at once (STEVENS POINT AREA
CONVENTION; VISITOR BUREAU, 2014; PETRY, 2014). At the same time, an artist can
be represented in multiple point-of-sales galleries at once. This type of gallery
usually gains their information from respective clients, through a direct observation
towards the artist and also critical review. Once the artists agree to be represented,
they usually sign a contract of exclusivity to make sure that a particular
gallery will be the only gallery that sells the artists’ works within a scope
of territorial limitation (PETRY, 2014; FORT POINT ARTS COMMUNITY, INC, 2014; STEVENS
POINT AREA CONVENTION; VISITOR BUREAU, 2014). By the time the artwork is sold,
the artist and the gallery will usually split the profit in the middle. In some
cases, where the artworks itself considered to have bigger value of production cost,
the artist can actually gain a bigger share of the profit (MOUREAU; SAGOT- DUVAUROUX,
2012; JO RICHES, LTD, 2014).
b)
Promotion galleries are the ones, which is quite famous
in France (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012). The promotion galleries usually ran
by specific educated individuals, mostly have had experienced in the business
of art or the art world itself (MATH, 2010). Promotion galleries itself works
along side with both in domestic and international level, numerous galleries,
art institutions, regional culture and communication ministries and exhibitions
(CENTRE FOR ARTS; TECHNOLOGY, 2014). Promotion galleries made catalogues and help
fund the production cost of the artists (LIGHT SPACE; TIME ONLINE GALLERY). The
weakness for this kind of gallery is that they are prone to economic pressure
of having to provide profits all the time. Most artists also might not be as loyal
and find a bigger gallery that can fund them with bigger production support. These
kind of galleries struggle because for they usually promote new and fresh artist
that not many have recognize yet in the market.
Despite the difficulties, promotion galleries usually are one kind of institution
that encourage the growth and improvement of the artist around them by
providing the option of production cost sponsorship (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX,
2012; LIGHT SPACE; TIME ONLINE GALLERY; MIAMI NEW TIMES; LLC, 2014). An example
on such improvements is recently discussed in the leading Indonesian newspaper,
Kompas. A local gallery in the Northern part of Bandung, Selasar Sunaryo, has
recently held the 5th exhibition of the chosen 10 young emerging contemporary
artists (WISANGGENI, 2014).
c)
Springboard gallery is the usually established as a non-profit
establishment, sustaining from the voluntary funds from the collectives (SPRINGBOARDS
FOR THE ARTS, 2012; THE SPRINGBOARD CHARITY, 2014). The art students, or art teachers,
or holders of art degrees usually own springboard galleries. At most cases, springboard
galleries are unified into an institutional network (SUFFOLK UNIVERSITY, 2014).
Springboard galleries are usually the first state art graduates take into
building a career in the visual art worlds (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012; THE
SPRINGBOARD CHARITY, 2014; SPRINGBOARDS FOR THE ARTS, 2012). An example on such
improvements is recently discussed in the leading Indonesian newspaper, Kompas.
SERRUM, one of Jakarta’s art communities, which was originally initiated by art
students at Universitas Negeri Jakarta eight (8) years ago, focuses on the
issues relating to on education, social, culture and politics via shared room and
different room setting/layout (PT. KOMPAS MEDIA NUSANTARA, 2014).
The promotions of artworks does not
stop only in the stages of galleries but continues into many different channel
such as displays in public venues such as restaurants and also the artist’s
personal studios. In some cases, artists can have their own art agents that
will help them do the art transaction for them as well as looking for a respected
and interested individual art buyers (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).The
definition of the art galleries cannot be simply boarded by a simple listing.
In some other region, art galleries are integrated with coffee shops and other
functions such as restaurants and hotels (HOLSWORTH, 2010).
2.2.
Business model
By definition, a business model is a
plan made by a company in order to manage their operation and obtain profits.
Business model goes way back in business world, as it is one way for someone to
understand how a business may generate revenues (INVESTOPIA, 2014).
Different business models are
required in order to succeed in different level of business and level. Of
general business model, or commonly referred to as distribution channels, falls
under the following categories (JOB, 2013; EBERT; GRIFFIN, 2012): (1)
manufacturers, which make and assembly their own products. At the end,
manufacturers can choose whether to sell their own products by their own or use
a retailer to distribute the products, (2) distributors are the ones who took
the products from the manufacturers and sell them directly to the customers,
(3) retailer usually have physical stores where they can sell the products they
get from wholesalers and
also distributors, and
(4) franchise could
be a manufacturer,
a distributor or even a retailer. It all depends on what kind of
franchise it has.
In relations to the art
business/market, Resch (2011) and Zorloni (2014) mentioned about 2 sub-markets
of either primary or secondary art markets, which are forming the network
economy as a way to boost competitive advantage via optimization between input
and output (RESCH, 2011).
Just as the names imply, the primary
art market represents the original artworks, which are sold for the first time.
This primary art market tends to involve higher risk for the dealers and
clients since the artworks are made available to the market for the first time.
This means that little or no information is available for those artworks. At
least this is true for the new emerging artists.
For “veteran” or “senior” artists,
lots of information is available for comparisons, from the quality, price,
demands, image, feedback, to the actual artworks themselves. Perhaps, this is
the main reason for new emerging artists to go for the secondary art market
instead. The secondary art market tends to represent the “secondary” artworks,
which may also be sold for the first time, but information on the artists and
their artworks is available.
Because of the available information
and comparability of artworks, the risk involves in purchase artworks in the
secondary market is largely minimized. To-date, USA houses the leading
internationally-recognized secondary art markets. This may well be due to the
political stability (CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY, 2012), favorable economic
environment (BANK INDONESIA, 2013; FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM, 2013), which
maintains the relatively strong currency (BANK INDONESIA, 2013; FEDERAL RESERVE
SYSTEM, 2013), aggressive stock market (SAHAM OK, 2014; FIDELITY BROKERAGE
SERVICES, LLC, 2012), and numerous incentives on fiscal, tax and legal issues (AFIFF;
ANANTADJAYA, 2013).
Source: Resch,
(2011)
These sub-markets of primary and
secondary art markets can be further divided based on product quality, price
range, and the market dimension, such as (ZORLONI, 2014; RESCH, 2011);
a)
Classical Contemporary Art Market (or also known as the Branded
Art Market) consists of a small number of suppliers/artists, who are basically
trying to maintain the oligopoly status in the market. Because of the smallness
of numbers of suppliers/artists, this market presents a relatively inelastic
supply. This may be comparable to the term “Beta Mainstream Gallery” (RESCH, 2011), whose characteristics include;
nationwide brand awareness, can become the trendsetter, premium price-tags, and
may be reviewed by national newspapers and magazines.
b)
Avant-Garde Art Market is for those artists, who emphasize
on international and highly- speculative markets. Because of the moderate numbers
of suppliers/artists, this market presents a modest inelastic supply. This may
be comparable to the term “Alpha Branded Gallery” (RESCH, 2011), whose characteristics
include; high global brand awareness, trendsetter, premium price-tags, and may
be reviewed by the global leading newspapers and magazines.
c)
Alternative Art Market serves as the alternative to the mainstream
internationally-oriented avant-garde, which includes the non-profit-sectors. This
alternative art market is different from the junk art market on the higher prices,
and connections to dealers based on exclusivity contractual agreements. Judgments
from critics and choices by the art leading experts are potentially driving the
demand, which influences the price of artworks. This may be comparable to the term
“Gamma Branded Gallery”, whose characteristics include; minimal brand awareness,
no trendsetter, moderate price-tags, and may be reviewed by the regional newspapers
and magazines.
d)
Junk Art Market is relatively a representation of a business
model/market for suppliers/artists since this market is comparatively composed
of numerous suppliers/artists, whose arts
are vastly different among each other, and the artworks are not legitimized since
the artworks may well be targeted for decorations (AOKI, 2001).
e)
Because of the large of numbers of suppliers/artists,
this market presents an infinitely elastic supply since there are no entry barriers
and many dealers may have entered the market with homogeneous works, which may
only target the opportunity costs. Department stores, warehouses, or gallery
shops are the perfect examples for the junk art market. This may be comparable
to the term “Delta Branded Gallery” (RESCH, 2011), whose characteristics include;
no brand awareness, no trendsetter, low price-tags, and may only be reviewed by
the local community newspapers and magazines.
Source: Resch, (2011)
From the “labels” used for these
business models/markets, it is obvious that those business models are different
based on the degree of monopoly, the elasticity of supply, and demand (ZORLONI,
2014; RESCH, 2011). There are differences between a business model and a
business strategy (QUICKMBA, 2010), which include the following;
a)
A business model works as a creator of value, how a firm
might establish a value that later will be transferred out to the customer. On
the other hand, strategy is a set of plan to capture the existing value that a firm
might already have and continues to build more sustaining ones (NAWANGWULAN;
MAY, 2014).
b)
A business model works as the basic foundation on the process
of changing an innovation into an economic business values. A business model does
not focus on elaborating the business point of view to shareholders like a
strategy might be able to do (NAWANGWULAN; MAY, 2014).
c)
A business model may be constructed with a narrow environment
comprehension while a strategy requires a more complex and wide knowledge (NAWANGWULAN,
2014).
In general, the following table
provides insights on the elements of business strategy for organizations.
Functions of Strategy |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
Sets direction |
Strategy sets direction toward the
future with consideration toward the
environment |
Strategy can potentially overlook dangers and environmental warnings |
Focuses efforts |
Strategy is used
to improve the coordination of efforts
among employees, managers, and owners |
Strategy may be becoming too focused, which allow the
management to overlook potentials and opportunities |
Defines the organization |
Strategy provides definitions to employees and the management, particularly the differential element in comparison to competitors |
Strategy may boost the potential stereotyping among
individuals, business units,
and organizations |
Provides consistency |
Strategy reduces uncertainties and acknowledges organizational action steps |
Strategy reduces the possibility on chaos
and/or unorganized action steps as the results
of uncertainties |
Source: Nawangwulan, (2014)
The business model for art at large
can be defined through the use of techniques required within the art pieces.
The most common one are between traditional and innovative arts (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX,
2012; RESCH, 2011).
There is a belief held by many that
the business models for most of visual arts are found to be frail and
defenseless toward fluctuation of funding. The correlation between both high
quality arts and great business model can help the success of the artist and
may also leads to becoming better known artists (ROYCE, 2011; SMIT, 2011).
Profiling in establishing business
model is regarded as essential. Personality profiling can provide additional
information of an individual’s attributes, values and life skills (RESCH,
2011). By having the knowledge of these may lead to a more productive outcome
on job performances (ROUSE, 2009).
Through a profiling process, an
individual might be able to identify who they are and later on find out that
they are different than anyone else as well as the versatility of their
characters. The biggest benefit of having a professional profiling is to be
able to develop more within the chosen career and to find more approach within
the surrounding (PEOPLE MAPS, 2014).
Different profile of artists will
require a different kind of business model. As artists, they will act on their
own styles. Also, they will have to adjust their business plans with their
artworks and art-pieces. At large, the business model inside the art world can
be pulled from two main lines of business model; innovation versus techniques
and artworks versus projects. With these lines, it leads to four business
models that acquaintance to four different kinds of artist types: salon,
artisan-entrepreneur, 360-degree artist and art fair artist (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX,
2012).
The graph summarizes the indicators
and output of the artist types and their effects toward the business model of
the art business they holds. The business model will combine the indicators
that differentiates one artist from another; education level or training,
distribution places, ways of improving the artworks value, balancing
activities, communities roles, and also the involvement of other organization
such as dealers and institution (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).
a)
The salon artists are the self-taught or trained artist
that specialized in traditional art techniques, in at most cases painting or
sculptures. This kind of artist usually gains their recognition from
commercialized use of the pieces while gaining the value of exhibitions, public
placement and point-of-sales galleries. The artist career basically based on
their ability to be able to sell their products in the market and how much they
sell. The transaction between the salon artist
and the buyer are usually based on commercial aspects, the opportunity
to get their artworks in public eyes. Each salon artist has his or her own
signature looks and style that distinguish them from another salon artist (MOUREAU;
SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).
Source: Moureau;
Sagot-Duvauroux
(2012)
b)
The artisan-entrepreneur artist has similar characteristics
with the salon artist. Most sculptors are identified within this profile. Usually,
they are looking for a source of funding before they start any of their art projects.
Their artworks are usually very relatable such as landscape and nature, which
then put photographers within this profile as well. They usually come in a set
of team and work for particular projects and sponsors. The revenue gained from
the payment of orders and the commercialized sales of the art pieces (MOUREAU;
SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).
c)
In case on doing commission, there are also 360-degree
artists. This kind of artist usually do commission and projects yet it is does
not limited to visual artworks but also performances, installation and many other
forms of artistic works. 360-degree artists included innovations into their artworks,
while using the techniques that they learned in specific artistic training.
They may also be included in other artistic projects such as designing,
exhibition management and other artistic activities (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).
d)
The last one is the art fair artist. The art fair artists
are primarily well-art-educated individuals that do both innovative and traditional
artworks. They are usually represented internationally as well as domestically
in various exhibition and galleries. The artist success are all based in the sales
they are able to established and their value are basically can only divined by
identified through or by the institutions and how many exhibition they manage
to be featured at. Yet, their revenue does not limit to sales, but also from the
funding they may get from various donators (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX, 2012).
This classification may not cover
all the approaches and classification of the artist and their works. Throughout
times, there will be new approaches and strategies that may appear in terms of
building the artist’s career (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX,
2012).
2.3.
Consumer behavior
In general, consumer behavior
represents a study about human behavior, group behavior, or organizational
behavior that are engaged in the process of planning, searching, making
selection, utilizing, and the actual purchase of products/services to fulfil
the needs and wants of people (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007). Of course, this
includes the impact of those processes to consumer and public at large. As one
may have expected, such processes are basically different for individuals,
which are dependent on attitude (PARK; MACINNIS; PRIESTER, 2006), perception (ATHIYAINAN;
O’DONNELL, 2005), image (GRAY, 2011), and motivation (D'SOUZA, 2013) toward
making decision (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007).
The study about consumer behavior
becomes interesting to examine the explicit activities and actions, but also to
investigate the actual process toward decision-making (IVANOV, 2010), including
the intricacies on individual’s buying behaviors (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007).
Consideration on taking options on which to buy or not to buy in the market may
be revealed.
With that knowledge, marketers are
trying to analyze how the consumers are behaving in order to make better
selling products in the market. The main question of all marketers is encircled
around the question on how consumers are behaving toward all the marketing
efforts. In that matter, multiple aspects can be investigated in order to
figure out the reasoning behind the customer ways of making purchasing
decisions a purchasing decisions (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG, 2012).
Source: (Kotler & Armstrong, 2012)
The graph does not always turn to be the main
reason behind the buying behavior of a customer. In some cases, consumers are
drawn by specific brands of products/services for their durability and
performance. This behavior is then called brand loyalty (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG,
2012; SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007). Yet, in some other cases where the products is
more based on daily used and fast turnover products, consumers often show the
psychological and cultural behaviors behind the purchase (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG,
2012; SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007; FLEW, 2010).
Undoubtedly, culture can certainly
be elaborated as one basis in one’s behavior. Cultures may portray someone’s
point of view towards certain occasion, how they interact with other
individuals and their reaction towards common situation (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK,
2007). These responses are nurtured to an individual gradually since birth,
which then lead into culture being one of ‘learned behavior’, for it took time
for someone to understand and obtain the information of what their culture are “looking-for”
from them. Therefore, cultures are different all over the world.
Every country as well as region has
different cultural preferences being nurture. At large, most individuals have
the same needs such as shelter, food and job. What differentiates them from one
to another is how they choose to accomplish these tasks and that may vary
across through different cultures. In that matter, culture clearly affects
individual’s decisions and their future actions (JOHANSSON, 2006).
Culture is one of the most important
aspects in a marketplace. The influence of culture within a marketplace lies in
the importance an individual put on the cultural based decisions. In order to
succeed in both domestic and international market, cultural influences should
be taken to a great extent in order to understand the ways a market may take a
decision of buying a certain product (KOTABE; HELSEN, 2011).
Social or social classes defined as
groups within a society that has similarities whether on the same values,
interest, or behavior (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007). The study of social classes are
founded to be useful for the tendency of members within a social class to have
the same purchasing decision, with one member can influence the others and vice
versa. Most social classes show more radical decision-making in secondary
products, such as leisure activities, clothing, furnishes, and transportations
(KOTLER; ARMSTRONG, 2012).
In the theory of personal factors,
an individual’s decisions are influenced from their personal characteristics
such as age and life cycle, occupations, economic situation, lifestyle,
personality, and self-concept (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 2007). The way individual
decides to buy a product may base on how old they are in the time of the
decisions.
Most young people will rather save
for a motorcycle, for instant, than for paying for their life insurance.
Throughout their life cycle stages, people’s behavior toward product may also
change. For some that already been through the hassle of getting moving out to
a new apartment, they may consider purchasing the help of a relocation service
compared to those who never had the experience of moving before (KOTLER;
ARMSTRONG, 2012).
The last aspect affecting the
consumer behavior is the psychological factors that are divided into
motivation, perception, learning, beliefs and attitudes (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK,
2007). As mentioned by Sigmund Freud, people at large mostly do not realize the
effects of their psychological situation towards their decisions and behaviors.
The needs of every person are often uncountable for having too many variables.
The motive is usually the kind of needs that based on a straight-up wants of a
person for a satisfaction.
Most people do not realize why they
want something and why they are doing what they are doing. For example, a
generation of baby boomers might feel the needs of having a convertible fast
car for the feeling of driving fast and feeling the air between their hairs.
Although through observation, the real reason behind the particular wants of
fast car by the baby boomer generation is that they want to feel young and
independent again (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG, 2012).
2.4.
Person
marketing
As quoted from The Business
Dictionary, marketing by definition is the management process through which
goods and services move from concept to the customer. For ages, marketers and
students has become very familiar towards the terms of 4P; products, place,
price, and promotion. These ‘4Ps’ are called the marketing mix. These variables
assist the strategic decisions making in order to precede a more planned
products/organization (BHASIN, 2014).
The number of sales can also get
boost with the help of person marketing. Person marketing includes every act of
making, preserving, or turn an attitude or behavior of certain individuals.
Person marketing usually use by certain product to boost their sales through
endorsements from popular figures. For example, the appearance of Nike
represented by athletes of various sports ranging from tennis to basketball
with famous figures such as Kobe Bryant and Serena Williams (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG,
2012).
In order to have an increasing path
of career in the world of art, personal marketing and branding are important to
be done. The variety of aspects that are constructing the demand of today’s
market contains impulsive economy, highly aggressive and narrow market, and the
shift of demographic as well as sturdy leadership skills in all stages (COLE,
2012).
Each artist is his or her own
personal “company”. As an artist, it does not mean that he or she is
exclusively represented by a certain brand or company. Hence, it is crucial to
recognize the role of self-branding. In terms of branding, the most important
part is to define is the differential factors. This means that the most
essential part is to have a distinct uniqueness that makes the brand stands out
among the crowd. Another consideration is to find out what an individual wants
to be famous for. In the case of artists, it is necessary to find out the
signature look and “feel” that should be portrayed within each of the
art-pieces (PETERS, 2012).
2.5.
Personal
diversity
It has become a public knowledge
that the effective management is closely tied into diversity. This is not
merely about employing diverse people, but it is deeply rooted into bigger
issues concerning people of “color”. This means that management must learn to
appreciate and appropriately extend the needs, attitudes, trusts, and values of
people into a particular organization. Diversity is definitely emerging and has
become the top topic to talk about by management (SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014).
Diversity is basically concerned
with the noticeable differences among individuals due to various factors, which
are used to separate individuals (JONES; GEORGE, 2008; DESSLER, 2004). Except
the management can handle the diversity well enough within the corporate walls,
the actual intricacies with diversity, along with the potential
misunderstanding among individuals due to various basis on differences, are
eminent. In turn, the organizational productivity may slide. Teamwork is also
jeopardized. Hence, it becomes crucial to acknowledge personal diversity.
One reference explicitly indicate
the factors on diversity, such as; age, gender, race, ethnic groups, religion,
sexual orientation, socio-economic condition, education, experience, physical
appearance, ability/inability, and other characteristics (JONES; GEORGE, 2008;
DESSLER, 2004; SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014). Another theory splits diversity into
2 viable categories; primary and secondary category (HELLRIEGEL; SLOCUM, 2004).
The primary category is all about the genetic characteristics of individuals.
The secondary category is about the impact and influence that individuals
gathered throughout the course of their lives. The combination of those
categories will shape individuals’ behaviors. The shaped individuals’ behaviors
impact the employee performance and organizational productivity, as shown in
the following illustration.
Source: (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2004)
2.6.
What are brands and brand image?
Brand is an important attribute to
positively grow individual’s perception. The level of public trust may likely
enhance once the attributes of brands are examined. The positive perception and
the level of trust toward certain brands may likely form a positive brand
image. This positive brand image becomes one of the influential elements in
buying behavior (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG, 2012).
To stand out among the crowds,
brands are “accompanied” by logo, seal, or packaging, whose intentions are to
increase the identification ability toward certain products/services of certain
brands (KOTLER; ARMSTRONG, 2012). With the tight competition, brands represent
the value-added attribute toward differentiation, and thus image.
According to Kotler and Armstrong
(2012), there are 5 supporting factors on brandimage, which are; product
attributes, benefits, organizational associations, brand consumer relationship,
and users.
a)
Product attributes are intended to provide explicit attractions
based on the value of the money, prestige, taste, and usefulness to ensure the highest
level of satisfaction in using or consuming the products/services. In terms of artworks,
the conformance of taste, price tags, and prestige appear essential (RESCH, 2011).
b)
Benefits are the considerations that individuals may contemplate
upon making the decisions. In this case, individuals do not buy the attributes,
but they purchase the benefits associated with certain products/services. In
terms of artworks, the perceived prestige of having the art-pieces from certain
artists is crucial (RESCH, 2011).
c)
Organizational Associations are expected to offer
additional trustworthiness to individuals upon making the purchase decision. The
more positive organizational association on certain brands, the higher the intention
to buy. In terms of artworks, this is translated into the networks that artists
have along their career path (RESCH, 2011).
d)
Brand Consumer Relationship can shape the quality of relationships
between individuals and certain brands. When individuals believe that a particular
mall is able to provide the one-stop-shopping experience, those people may
likely become loyal to that mall. For artworks, when the relationships between
the art-pieces and the artists become closer, those people tend to search for
those artists and their artworks, regardless of places/locations. A higher level
of dependency is created. This is when the inelastic demand is formed (ZORLONI,
2014). The personal brands of the artists
themselves influence the international recognition and international
price parity for the artworks (ZORLONI, 2014).
e)
From the user’s perspective, brand delivers the feeling
of fulfillment. The feeling of fulfillment pushes forward for satisfaction,
which may also be derived from the feeling/sense of pride, prestige, or
luxurious. Having art-pieces denote pride for owners. Artists may have to
ensure this emotional attachment into artworks (RESCH, 2011).
2.7.
Intellectual
property regulation
Intellectual property defines as
everything that is invented or created from individual’s mind, which includes
literatures, artistic works and design as well as names and images that are
commercially used. Intellectual properties are protected by law under
copyrights, trademarks and patents in order to ensure a financial gains as well
as recognition of the creator from the creation they made. Intellectual
property regulations are made in order to nurture the creative environments
and encourage more creation and
innovations (WORLD INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY ORGANIZATION, 2014).
Intellectual property law and
protection are highly required especially in the creative industries. Most
creations in the world of creative are obtained through long hours, great
scarification from the artist and also in an angle a financial investment from
who created the piece. The duplication and imitation of the creation may leads
to lower financial returns of the artist, as well as less recognition for the
artists who deserve it (KOTABE; HELSEN, 2011).
“The
Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights and Counterfeit Goods” was
signed by Indonesia back in 1994. By signing the agreement, Indonesia agrees to
protect the intellectual properties as well as building the regulation of
intellectual property that, back then, did not exist yet. In 2006, the success
of the implementation of the regulation showing a very god measurement, yet it
does not free Indonesia from the struggle of maintaining the intellectual
properties registration process and the citizen’s education and acceptance
level toward the new stricter intellectual properties regulations (TUKAN,
2006).
Taking United States as a
comparison, the registration system for intellectual properties in Indonesia is
much more unmanageable and may cost a fortune. In USA, the registration
processes are much easier due to the fully-integrated technology and paperless
systems. In Indonesia, all registration processes are bounded into the use of
papers and complicated steps. Seeing the difficulties and the potential costs,
it is very unlikely for an individual to sign up for an intellectual property
rights in Indonesia (TUKAN, 2006).
2.8.
Market
acceptance
The level of market acceptance is
approximated via Hofstede’s 5 culture dimensions toward acceptance of
products/services (HSU; HSU; YEH, 2010; MIND TOOLS, LTD, 2014; THE HOFSTEDE
CENTRE, 2014);
a)
Power Distance refers to the distribution of power among
individuals in organizations or groups.
In this case, a larger the power distance means that individuals are
recognizingmore the hierarchical distribution of power. Hence, the larger power distances, the lower
level of acceptance toward product/services.
b)
Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the level of tolerance toward
circumstances in society. In this case, a higher the uncertainly avoidance means
that individuals are unwilling to recognize uncertainty. Sure things are
definitely preferred. Hence, the higher uncertainty avoidance, the lower level
of acceptance toward products/services.
c)
Individualism refers to individualistic perspective relative
to becoming members of certain groups.
In this case, a higher the level of individualism in the society means that people
prefer to be independent and emphasizing on “I” before “we”. Hence, the higher level
of individualism, the lower level of acceptance toward products/services.
d)
Masculinity refers to the sense of recognition in the society.
In this case, masculine individuals tend to be more positive, active, confidence,
enjoy challenges, ignore others’ opinions, and making independent decisions. Hence,
the more masculine the individuals in the society, the lower level of acceptance
toward products/services.
e)
Long-term Orientation refers to individuals’ point of
reference toward persistency, including higher willingness to embrace
makeovers. In this case, individuals
with long-term orientation are likely adopting and adapting into
modernizations. Hence, the stronger the individuals’ long-term
orientations, the lower level of acceptance toward product/services.
2.9.
Market
opportunity
In-line with the evaluation on
market opportunities, the understanding on marketing audit can certainly be
incorporated to approximate the valuation and control. However, it should be
noted that in terms of the marketing opportunity for artists, the biggest
hurdle is often about the required capital and limited sources (NUARTA, 2014;
BREWER III; GENAY, 1994).
Banks or commercial lenders are not
making their funds available to MSMEs and creative industries. Most likely, it
is simply due to the intangible ideas without any visible money-making avenues
to show the potential cash inflows for loan repayments. Though tangible assets
may have been recognized as collaterals, banks and commercial lenders remain
hesitate to extend the necessary funding in creative industry. Elements of the
marketing audit may be focused on the following parameters (NAWANGWULAN, 2013;
HOCHBERG, 1999);
a)
Annual-plan control to ensure that organizations can reach
the levels of sales, revenue, and other pre-set objectives. The annual-plan
control requires the following; (i) sales analysis (SLOMA, 1980; ANTHONY; GOVINDARAJAN,
2007), (ii) market-share analysis (SLOMA, 1980; ALIPOUR; GHANBARI; MONIRI, 2011),
(iii) marketing expenses-to-sales analysis (EBERT; GRIFFIN, 2012), (iv) rate of
return on net worth (ANTHONY; GOVINDARAJAN, 2007), and (v) market-based scorecard
analysis (INDRA; ANANTADJAYA, 2011).
b)
Profitability control (SLOMA, 1980). The calculation on profitability
control requires; (i) marketing-profitability analysis, and (ii) direct costs
vs. traceable costs vs. full costs (ANTHONY; GOVINDARAJAN, 2007).
c)
Efficiency control (SLOMA, 1980) via (i) sales force efficiency,
(ii) advertising efficiency, (iii) sales promotion efficiency, and (iv)
distribution efficiency.
d)
Strategic control (TJIPTONO, 2001), or otherwise known also
as marketing-effectiveness analysis (WU; FU, 2009), evaluates the effectiveness
on marketing programs (WU, 2011).
e)
Anticipated level of activity (HOCHBERG, 1999) to forecast
the potential volume of work and longer-term expectation for the market. This
may certainly be qualitatively conducted via interviews, FGDs, observations, projection
techniques, and/or experiments.
f)
Market competition and competitors (HOCHBERG, 1999) to gauge
the potential market opportunity via market trends, numbers of players, numbers
of experts, influential factors, and potential profits. This may certainly be qualitatively
conducted via interviews, FGDs, observations, projection techniques, and/or experiments.
In terms of the art market, perhaps
a simple comparison to another “type” of market may have to be examined to note
the potential differences.
Category |
Art
Market |
Financial
Market |
Classification |
Mixture between tangible assets and intangible assets |
tangible assets, or otherwise referred to as capital
assets |
Degree of Competition |
Monopolistic Competition |
Perfect Competition |
Liquidity |
Illiquid because it takes time
to sell and generating cash flows |
Liquid because the time
required to sell and generating cash flows
are relatively faster
than the art market |
Supply and Demand |
Polypolistic Supply Structure since there is no reference point
to find market
price |
Polypolistic Supply Structure since there is no reference point
to find market
price |
Market Efficiency |
Not conforming to the market
efficiency theory due
to the asymmetrical information among players |
Though it may not fully conforming to the market efficiency theory, but the
financial market is relatively more transparent and have
a tendency of symmetrical information among players |
Market Distortion |
No clear-cut law
to regulate the
existing market
distortions |
Clear-cut law to prevent market distortions |
Source: (Resch, 2011)
2.10.
Previous studies
In relation to the theoretical
review in this study, it becomes essential to investigate relevant researches
on each of the intended issues/topics, including the underlying studies on the
relatedness among the issues/topics.
Titles and Names |
Variables and Indicators |
Brief Findings |
1.
Blood Groups and Personality
Traits (CATTELL; YOUNG; HUNDLEBY, 1964) |
Blood Type Personality |
There is a difference in Factor
I (premsia-harria) in every
blood type. |
2.
24 Marketing Research Parameters (HOCHBERG, 1999) |
Anticipated Level of Activity Client Characteristics Consultant Characteristics Funding Lead Finding Selection Process Competition Indicators about the Market |
The most applicable dimensions to use on market
research |
3.
Blood-Typical Personality Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A Natural
Experiment with Time- Series Data of 1978-1988 (SAKAMOTO; YAMAZAKI, 2002) |
Blood Type Personality |
Personality based
on blood type is shaped
due to stereotyping. Additional research is needed. |
4.
Ethnic Group Differences in Measures of Job Performance: A New Meta-Analysis (ROTH; HUFFCUTT; BOBKO, 2003) |
Ethnic Group Performance |
There is a difference on performance between the
white Americans, African Americans, and Hispanics. |
5.
Measuring Marketing Performance: Which Way is Up? (AMBLER; KOKKINAKI, 2004) |
Marketing Performance: Financial (sales volume, turnover, profit contribution) Competitive Market (market share, relative price, share of promotions, share of voice) Consumer Behavior (penetration, numbers of
users, numbers of consumers,
user loyalty, consumer loyalty, user gains,
user losses) Consumer Intermediate Thoughts and Feelings (awareness, attitude, satisfaction, commitment, buying
intentions,
perceived quality) Direct Trade Customers (distribution, availability, customer profitability, satisfaction, service quality) Innovation (numbers of new products/services,
revenue
generated
from new products/services
as percentage of sales) Firm Characteristics: Industry Type Firm Size |
Marketers have the tendency to be unclear about what they are trying
to achieve. This impacts the marketing performance indicators |
6. Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Kinerja Guru Matematika Dalam Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi (KBK) pada Sekolah
Menengah Atas Kota Palembang (INDRAWATI, 2006) |
Knowledge Skills Motivation Performance |
In
combination, knowledge, skills and motivation have a total
influence about 20.5%
toward performance. |
7.
The Art
Business (ROBERTSON; CHONG, 2008) |
Art Market Technique and Structure Culture and Management Regulation, Legal and Ethics |
Art
business has
whole aspects
that affect
the success
and the growth of the business. |
8.
Karakteristik
Individu, Karakteristik
Pekerjaan, Karakteristik
Organisasi, Motivasi
Kerja dan Kinerja
Karyawan - Studi
Pada CV Kecak
Denpasar (GUNASTRI, 2009) |
Individual Characteristics Employee Performance |
Insignificantly positive influence from individual characteristics toward employee performance |
9.
A Cross-Cultural Study on Consumers’ Level of Acceptance Toward Marketing Innovativeness (HSU; HSU; YEH, 2010) |
Consumer
Level of Acceptance: Cultural Dimension (based on Hofstede’s cross- cultural
Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism,
Masculinity, Long-Term Orientation) Innovative Marketing: Consumer Creativity Searching for Novelty Doubt Making Innovative Decision Perception to Attractiveness of Marketing Strategies |
There were variations on consumer level of acceptance depending on the
country’s cultural dimensions in Hong
Kong, Macao, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Taiwan |
10.
Business Model
in Visual Arts: An Investigation of Organizational Business Models for the Turning Point
Network and Arts Council England (ROYCE, 2011) |
Business
Model in Visual
Arts Organizations Sustainability of the current model Business strategies |
Doing
business in art is not different from any other
kinds of business. The importance of a well-thought business plan
is crucial and not as simple
as it may seem. |
11.
Management of Art Galleries – Business Models (RESCH, 2011) |
Business
Model Building Blocks: Product (value proposition) Marketing Activities (customer and communication) Finance (revenue) Internal Management (organizational from, cooperation/network, coordination
and competence) |
Two
recurring business
models in the art gallery market for
contemporary art;
(1) the primary market galleries and (2) the
primary + secondary market galleries. While the latter
is active in both
markets, the former is only active
in the primary. This
conclusion is different business focus
changes most
dimensions of the business model, particularly the organizational model. |
12.
Pengaruh
Karakteristik Individu
Terhadap Prestasi Kerja Staf
Perusahaan Konstruksi Dengan Metode
Structural Equation
Modeling (FIRMAN;
WIGUNA; WALIULU, 2011) |
Individual Characteristics Individual Ability Work Motivation Work Satisfaction Work Performance |
Individual characteristics have
indirect impacts
toward work
performance, but via individual ability, work motivation, and work satisfaction. |
13.
Analisis
Faktor-Faktor yang
Mempengaruhi Kinerja
Dosen Negeri
Dipekerjakan Pada
Kopertis Wilayah
V Yogyakarta (PRAMUDYO, 2011) |
Motivation Competence Leadership Work Environment Performance |
All
indicators show some levels
of importance toward performance. |
14.
Pengaruh
Kemampuan dan Motivasi Terhadap Kinerja Pegawai Pada Sekolah Tinggi
Seni Indonesia (STSI) Bandung (ANGGRAENI, 2011) |
Ability Motivation Performance |
Simultaneously, ability and motivation are positively influencing the performance |
15.
Teacher
Diversity Matters:
A State-by-State Analysis of Teachers of Color (BOSER,
2011) |
Ethnic Group Student’s
Performance |
The more divers the teachers, the
better the
student’s performance |
16.
ABO Blood
Group and
Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Two Prospective Cohort Studies (HE, et al., 2012) |
Blood Type Coronary
Heart Disease |
Blood type is significantly correlated with the risk of coronary heart disease. Blood type “O” has the lowest risk. |
17.
Four Business
Models in Contemporary Art (MOUREAU; SAGOT- DUVAUROUX, 2012) |
Business
Model in Contemporary Arts Technique and Styles of Artworks Artists’ profile and Selling methods |
Different artist requires
different business
models that
then will
affect their
success in both
financial aspect and career
aspects. |
18.
Pengaruh
Brand Image
Mall X Terhadap Tingkat Kunjungan Individual di Kota Bandung (KOSWARA, 2012) |
“Frequency of Visits” is used as a proxy to approximate brand image: Product Attributes Consumer Benefits User Imagery Organizational Association Brand Consumer Relationship |
Regression analysis revealed
that there
are simultaneous influence from product attributes, consumer benefits, user imagery, organizational associations, and brand consumer relationship to frequency of visit, at about
31.89% |
19.
Faktor
dari Perilaku Konsumen dan
Dampak Terhadap Kepuasan &
Loyalitas Pelanggan: Sebuah Kajian
Pustaka (NAWANGWULAN; november 2013) |
Consumer Behavior Customer Satisfaction Customer Loyalty |
The
way consumer behaves
is important to examine the potential influence toward
future satisfaction and loyalty. |
20.
Tinjauan Pustaka: Audit Pemasaran Manajemen Ritel (NAWANGWULAN, September 2013) |
Types of Retail
Establishments Components of Marketing Audit Parameters of Marketing Audit |
Marketing audit is essential in examining the potential hurdles during the
routine organizational activities. Early
detections may be beneficial in improving the organizational performance |
21.
Analyzing Driving Factors on Organizational Growth: An Empirical Study
in Creative Industry in the City of South Tangerang (HIDAYAT; ANANTADJAYA; ABADI; SINAGA; LINGGA, 2013) |
Foundation & Pillars: Industry People Technology Resources Institution & Financial Intermediaries Internal Sustainability: Intellectual Government Businesses |
The
existing foundation & pillars
influence the level of internal sustainability as much
as 92%. |
22.
The Structural and Competitive Context of the
Contemporary Visual
Art (ZORLONI, 2014) |
Business
Model in Contemporary Arts: Branded Art Market Avant-Garde Art Market Alternative Art Market Junk Art Market Pricing & Value of Artworks: Brand Technicalities Degree of Competition Cultural Infrastructure Power of Dealers Personal Networking |
Italian
market for contemporary art is not strong. It is a national market with little
or no power to attract
international buyers
and international prices. Italy has a relatively strong barriers to entry due to minimal
of contemporary art museum, unfavorable tax rules for dealers and collectors, and little
attention to young
artists |
23.
Peran
Personal Diversity, Kompetensi & Kinerja Karyawan di Beberapa Perusahaan di Indonesia (SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014) |
Personal Diversity: Age Gender Race Religion Education Status of School School Origin Work Experience in the current organization Work Experience beyond this
current organization Blood Type Competence: Knowledge Skills Behavior Employee Performance: Quality of Work Quantity
of Work Ability Attitude |
The
results of this
quantitative- based research is that;
Personal diversity
is positively influencing work performance.
Competence is positively influencing work performance. Personal diversity has
a negatively inverse relationship with competence. |
2.11.
Research
differences
Considering the relatedness of the selected studies, as
shown in the above table, each one of those studies are researched separately
otherwise. First, the study on personal diversity may have been related only to
the management of diversity inside firms. Second, the study on brand image may
have been related only to the sales, marketing, and promotional activities of
companies.
Third,
the study on the prevailing role of cultural dimensions may have been related
only to psychology and/or limited to corporate walls for cultural awareness
initiatives. Fourth, the study on market opportunity, which is likely involving
financial measures, may have been related only to tangible business deals with
minimum regards to the intricacies on intangible business deals, such as;
artworks and valuables.
With
such deep considerations on the prevailing phenomena in the fields of market
acceptance and opportunities on artists and their artworks, integrating those
separated studies in the seemingly unrelated fields become appealing. This may
have been one of the crucial literature reviews tying cross-fields of studies
among diversity, image, acceptance, and opportunity on artists and their
valuable pieces. With a more specific emphasis on contemporary art, this
literature review may start the rippling effects on strategic management,
particularly in the performance management and control system thoughts.
This study is different from the
previous researches in terms of the following issues;
a)
Examine the theoretical perspectives on the business model
that might be suitable for the Indonesian contemporary art market (MOUREAU; SAGOT-DUVAUROUX,
2012; RESCH, 2011).
b)
Theoretically combining the notions on personal diversity
(SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014) and brand image into the level of acceptance and market
opportunities in terms of the Indonesian contemporary art market.
c)
Adopting the concept of brand image into contemporary artists,
as individuals. This literature study encircles the concept on brand image around
product attributes, benefits, organizational associations, brand consumer relationship,
and user perspective (KOSWARA, 2012).
d)
In relation to the brand image, this literature study
also acknowledges the role of personal diversity of the artists, to note the
possibility of stimulus toward brand image. This literature study encircles the
concept on personal diversity around age, gender, blood type, ethnic group, religion,
education, school origin, and experience (SETIO; ANANTADJAYA, 2014)
e)
Adopting the concept of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions as
the level of market acceptance toward Indonesian contemporary art market. This literature
study encircles the concept on market acceptance around power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation (MIND
TOOLS, LTD, 2014; THE HOFSTEDE CENTRE, 2014; HSU; HSU; YEH, 2010).
f)
Adopting the concept of marketing audit as the market
opportunity for the Indonesian contemporary art market. This literature study encircles
the concept on market opportunity around annual-plan control, profitability
control, efficiency control, strategy control, anticipated level of activity, and market competition/competitors (NAWANGWULAN,
2013; HOCHBERG, 1999).
3. CONCLUSION
From the literature review, as
mentioned above, it is apparent that the theoretical relationships between
personal diversity, brand image, level of acceptance and the market opportunity
should be strong. Based on the above differences, the following research model
can be formulated and proposed.
Though theoretically the
relationships should be strong, a closer look into the model may reveal a
different story. Depending on the artists’ own personal diversity in comparison
to other artists, any improvements on brand image are expected to boost the
artists’ images in public.
However, knowing that the culture in
Indonesia is relatively centralized and hierarchical (high power distance),
prefer informalities but expect certainties (low uncertainty avoidance), prefer
harmony with people (very low individualism), value historical roots (low
masculinity), and unwilling to embrace modifications (high long-term
orientation), artists need to surpass these cultural hindrances in order to
excel. The fact that prejudice is relatively existing in Indonesia, it adds
higher obscurity on the level of acceptance.
Theoretically, it is suspected that
though the brand image of the artists are relatively strong, artists may not
able to widen the market opportunity as predicted due to the Indonesian culture
on the level of acceptance toward artworks. Also, certain diversity may prevent
artists to excel in the Indonesian market. Hence, it is suspected that the
relationship between personal diversity and brand image is strong. Likewise,
the relationship between brand image and acceptance is strong, but it may not
be the case for the relationship between acceptance and market opportunity.
However, it is also crucial to note
the personal diversity of the artists. Depending on their diversity,
unfortunately, the potential enhancement on brand image, market acceptance, and
market opportunity may be different than the original expectation. Of course,
this paper does not intent to bring-up the issues on discriminations. The fact
shows a different stories as people may have had their own prejudice against
diversity.
Since this study does not involve
further quantitative analyses, and may not have undergone various steps on
interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and/or experiments, this
theoretically proposed model may be taken into another level. Because of the
dimensions of the Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, comparisons are necessary to
evaluate the consistency toward the artists’ market opportunity.
Nevertheless, with the extensive
literature studies, this research seeks to build impact toward the combinations
on fields of studies, particularly among diversity, brand image, market
acceptance, and potential market opportunity. It is expected that this
investigative literature study is able to enrich and provide a solid foundation
onto the future quantitative statistical evidence among variables.
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